About Malay Colonial Identity

This page examines the depictions of the Malays by Frank Swettenham (1850–1946), situating his portrayals within their historical, political, and intellectual context.

Malay Colonial Identity by frank swettenham

The writings of Frank Swettenham are considered authoritative in Western Historiography pertaining
Malay studies, this is achieved through his 32 years 9 months and 9 days in service as a British colonial official located in the Malay peninsula and the wealth his corpus of writing.


The authority of Frank Swettenham (1850–1946) is achieved through his positions and titles founded upon his mastery of the Malay language during his career in the Malay Peninsula as he communicated directly with the Malay people of various geographical location in the Malay Peninsula and the various social status and recorded his interactions and thoughts in his journals, memorials, sketches, documents, letters and others which are in his professional and personal capacity

The Sections in this Page are;

The Historical Context of Frank Swettenham

The authority of the Malay colonial identity in the writings of Frank Swettenham was based upon the perceived authority and knowledge he had upon the Malays. He had a career in the Malay States that spanned beyond three decades, he was fluent with the Malays, he had managed to insert British penetration into the Malay States, and he had direct communication with the Malays at various levels.

Frank Swettenham (1850–1946) existed during the period of the Victorian Era
(1850–1901), Edwardian Period (1901–1914), World War I (1914–1918), Interwar
Period (1918–1939), World War II (1939–1945), Post-War and Early Welfare State
(1945–1946), and died during the seeding of the ideology of decolonization to which he was actively part of, specifically fighting against the Malayan Union.

He lived his first 22 years in United Kingdom during the Industrial Revolution where technological advancement such as railways and manufacturing productions took place, including social reforms for a better quality of life for the working class.

He then went to the East specifically the Malay States under the employment of the Government of the Straits Settlement in the service of cadetship and established himself quite remarkably in the Malay States.

During this time, the Indian Office had handed over the Affairs of the Malay States to the Colonial Office.

After his retirement from being the Resident-General, the highest position one may assume, he returned to an Edwardian England (1901–1914) where the brutality of life thrusted upon the working class continued their social reforms for a dignified and better life, in contrast, to the elegance of high society. Being born into the middle-class, Frank Swettenham managed to maneuver himself into high society due to his literary works.

Then World War I (1914–1918) occurred, consequently, the Interwar Period (1918–1939) induced political reform and economic depression to which led to World War II (1939–1945) and his life was nearing the end during the Post-War and Early Welfare State (1945–1946) phase, when he was on the frontier against the Malayan Union, an attempt to protect the Malays in his own capacity and peculiar ways.

The life of the Malays in the Malay States on the Malay peninsula was similar
to their way of life from the previous centuries, the head of the political institution and religion of Islam and head of Justice was the Sultan, assisted and advised by his ministers and other high officials. The economic activities were maritime and agrarian where trade was the heart of revenue. Smiths, fisherfolk and farmers were the backbone to food security and daily life, and yet the Malays were self-sufficient to survive on their own. Young girls were often kept away from the gaze of men and their presence, yet women participated in public affairs, trade, and the labour force.

The Malay life was mostly harmonious with rare experiences of war. However, in the Malay State of Perak, many illiterate Chinese labourers came to become miners, and their existence created chaos as they warred amongst themselves and effected the Malays. And then British brought in Indian migrant labourers that both races had effected the Malays in various ways, as they, the foreigners were prospering in the Malay States, the Malays were marginalized in their own motherland.

The Construction of Authority in Frank Swettenham’s Malay Colonial Identity

The authority of the Malay colonial identity in the writings of Frank Swettenham was based upon the perceived authority and knowledge he had upon the Malays. He had a career in the Malay States that spanned beyond three decades, he was fluent with the Malays, he had managed to insert British penetration into the Malay States, and he had direct communication with the Malays at various levels.

Frank Swettenham was in the first batch of the Straits Settlement Cadetship where passing the Malay examination was compulsory.

Frank Swettenham was fluent in the Malay language. In his journals he writes some sentences in Malay Jawi and he transliterates his experiences into the Roman alphabets to write of his Malay experiences that are foreign to the English readership.

Frank Swettenham had a Malay male colleague while working in Penang, he had direct communication with the Malay fisherfolk and farmers, the Malay nobilities of man and women, Malay slaves of men and women, Malay children from royalty to those living in poverty and those without liberty. He had met all types of Malays and communicated with them, mostly verbal, a feat that the majority of the colonial officials did not do.

Intimacy and the Construction of Malay Colonial Identity

The relationships Frank Swettenham (1850–1946) had with the Malays was of various nature; student – teacher, governance, advisor, administrator, conditional and genuine friendships, opposed the Malayan Union which he regarded as a stupid betrayal to the race he had served so well, and as a source of help. Though he had retired from the Colonial Services, certain Malay nobilities retained correspondences and sought advice from him in matters of administration, However, at times there occurred clashes in culture amongst him and the Malays.
Student – Teacher

Frank Swettenham studied the Malay language under Mohammad Said, who was the Government Munshi, a teacher and also the editor of the newspaper Jawi Peranakan.

Frank Swettenham was the 15th Governor and Commander-in-Chief of the Straits Settlements 5 November 1901–16 April 1904.

Frank Swettenham was the Main Malay Advisor on Malay Affairs 1881–1882 and the informal advisor to the Sultan of Selangor in Langat, November 1873–May 1874,

Frank Swettenham was an Acting Resident and Resident in Perak and Selangor which administrates the Malays.

Frank Swettenham had conditional friendships with the Malays where he would set the conditions and if they failed to meet his requirements, Frank Swettenham would no longer consider them as friends.

“That owing to the Bandar’s serious illness I was unable to go to Singapore today, but should go in 7 days from this, and I begged he would send me a letter promising to go on that day. That if he then failed he was aware that he would no longer be a friend and that he could not remain in Salangor.” Journal Entry 9 December 1874.

At times the friendship, correspondences and goodwill of Frank Swettenham and some Malays were beyond time and space illustrating genuine friendships.

In 1935, a Malay Sultan had travelled to England in an attempt to retain his sovereignty and Frank Swettenham (1850–1946) aided and hosted the Sultan.

Frank Swettenham regarded the Malayan Union “as a stupid betrayal to the race he had served so well” and opposed it through writing through the Newspaper and forming alliances to oppose the Malayan Union.

The Malays did view Frank Swettenham as a source of help.

A Malay woman by the name Who Aminah binti Awang Jah wrote to Frank Swettenham seeking aid in the solution to her woes, she was working as a teacher then was promised marriage, therefore she stopped working and the man, Imam Prang Indra Setia Raja, broke their engagement. She is now out of income and seeks financial loan from Frank Swettenham to buy plantation land to secure herself, and has written a poem for Her Majesty’s Diamond Jubilee as a means of livelihood. This document “Breach of Promise” resides in the National Archives of Malaysia.

The Raja of Patani had written to Frank Swettenham in seeking aid from the British against the King of Siam. Letter from Tengku Abdul Kadir Kamaruddin, Rajah of Patani to Sir Frank Swettenham, dated 13 August 1901.

The Raja of Sai had written a letter to Frank Swettenham in seeking aid from the British against the King of Siam. Letter from Abdul Mutalib, the Rajah of Sai to Sir Frank Swettenham, dated 29 November 1901.

Though he had retired from the Colonial Services, certain Malay nobilities retained correspondences.

Sultan Iskandar Shah (R. 1918–1938) sent a letter of gratitude to Swettenham (1850–1946), 6 June 1935. In this letter Sultan Iskandar Shah is thankful to Frank Swettenham for restoring peace in Perak and the restoration of Lumut.

Some Malays sought advice from him in matters of administration.

Letter to Frank Swettenham from Raja Haji Mahmud, dated 29 May 1908. In this letter Raja Mahmud seeks for the rewards of his friends in serving the Straits Settlements Government, the state of his title Panglima Besar bestowed upon him by Frank Swettenham and about the Sakais selling orchards.

At times there occurred clashes in culture amongst Frank Swettenham and the Malays.

Frank Swettenham could not receive the $100 given to him by Sultan Abdul Samad and his Malay clerk could not comprehend why. “About 3 p.m. The Sultan (Abdul Samad) sent his Krani with some rice, salt fish, and oil and $100 in money. I told the Krani to thank the Sultan, that I was much obliged for the rice etc. and would give it to the men, but that I could not receive the $100. I tried to explain why but he did not seem to quite to understand and took the money reluctantly. I (Frank Swettenham) saw the Sultan (Abdul Samad) shortly afterwards and told him how much obliged I was and also explained about the money to him. He said he did not understand our (British) customs. He meant it as a present, but he also wished to pay all our expenses, mine and the Police, as long as we would stay with him, so that we should be no charge on the Straits Govt., for he said, as long as the Governor allowed us to stay, we should be working entirely in his interest and should be such a benefit to him that it was but right that he should bear all the expense. I told him I would tell the Governor of his wish and that whether H.E. accepted his offer or not I was sure he would be glad to hear he had made it.” Frank Swettenham. Journal Entry 24 August 1874.

Malay Colonial Identity of Frank Swettenham – Conclusion

This section examines the conclusion of the Malays as portrayed by Frank Swettenham in his writings and observations.

It is discovered that Frank Swettenham was not objective in his imagery of the Malays as he mostly do not adhere to the standards of objectivity. Frank Swettenham had penned the images the Malays in a negative light. Upon conducting research with the employment of methodologies of historical and textual studies, it has been discovered that he had portrayed the Malays in their professional writing as incompetent people in need of the British to civilise and give progression to them and in their personal correspondence, the Malays are written as an inferior race.

The main contention brought by him is that Islam had brought regression and
the notion of anti-knowledge amongst the Malays with their Malay Chiefs being incompetent. The intellectual scholarships of the Malays remain mum and muted to them and they are labelled stupid because the Malays upheld the Muslim worldview, therefore, they are harder to be manipulated and controlled, narrowing down the British desire to obtain wealth from the human resources of the Malays.

He too abhor the Malay political institution spearheaded by the Malay Sultan of each monarchy with the advice of the Muslim Imams, scholars of Islam, as they protect the Malays from proselytizing efforts, therefore abandoning the hopes of converting the Malays on the Malay States of the Malay Peninsular from converting to Christianity, where Christianity remains another form of religious and worldview colonialism.

During the Age of Frank Swettenham, the British Empire was in need of food security and manufacturing and accumulation of lands, natural resources, and wealth for the purposes of the English’s self-preservation.

They consistently cast doubt upon the literature, history and origin of the Malay people, stating that they migrated either from India or Yunnan, China, which is a reflection of the Anglo-Saxons who originated from German and migrated to England, thus creating a new race and nation for themselves, the English race and the country of England.

They preferred pre-Islamic Malay faiths due to the caste system brought by the Hindus, but they failed to mention that the Malays on the Malay Peninsula were mostly Buddhist, polytheist and animistic, who did not have social caste, unless between the Royals and non-Royals.


Though they mostly mingled with the ruling class of the Malays, they had also viewed the Malays like a spectacle of theatre, employing empiricism as if the lives of the Malays were akin to actors on the stage of tragedy. The spectator functions as an untrained critic of theatre, just as they did.

Their imagery of the Malay people is written best suited in accordance to their
agenda of British settlement, interference, and penetration. Compounded with their own personal agenda to obtain power and create wealth and legacy for themselves.


His personal agenda anchored them through their careers and it was his Western Graeco-Roman worldview specifically of Moral philosophy in Western thought which gave interpretation to their surroundings. For the Western civilisation, the purpose of seeking knowledge is to produce in the seeker a good citizen. The three colonial officials were citizens who benefitted society through their professional position – agents of colonialism.

The Graeco-Roman philosophical tradition, centred on the notion of the “Other” and inferiority, informs the moral frameworks that align with Western modernity.

Frank Swettenham had a high sense of himself which had lead to megalothymia which is a form of superiority complex. Their constitution is an exhibition of their arrogance to which leads to their way of thinking that they are better than others therefore it is the White men’s burden to bring gospel and progress to the world. Their notion of secularity has also caused this was of thinking, as they are disenchanted from nature and metaphysical thinking,
they deem themselves liberated, therefore must liberate others from the clutches of primitiveness.

The Europeans firstly came to the East for Commerce then missionary purposes. Then it led to capitalism and the want to dominate trade routes and the entitlement to obtain natural resources from others. First, they came to trade, mingled with the people and insinuated wars, by divide and conquer methodology. They then installed puppet leaders and punished those who rebelled against them. Then they took a subtle approach of controlling education, revenue distribution, and spread their propaganda through education and policies. Therefore, the images of the Malays written in the writings of the selected colonial officials are veneers of historical scholarship, yet below the superficiality, it a political propaganda. Therefore, the
Malay Images in the writings of Frank Swettenham is his daydreams.

The Malay images that adhere to the Malay reality is that the political
institution of the Malays is the Malay Monarchy and the Malays have the special characteristic of amuk.

The colonial officials’ methodology of empiricism has brought upon misinterpretation as they interpreted in accordance to their worldview, colonial
understanding, Eurocentric approach, their own temperance, morality, personal and professional agendas, and their lack of objectivity.

Upon the realisation that the Malay Images in the writings of Frank Swettenham is propaganda — bringing chaos rather than justice and peace to the Malays, the Malays must take charge of their own narrative.

This is done by understanding their own history and self-consciousness which is the first step in decolonisation of knowledge.


They, the Malays are Muslims and adhere to the tenets of Islam and its constellation of thought, therefore the epistemological knowledge of Dewesternization of Knowledge and Islamisation is best fitted for their worldview and understanding knowledge and nature of things.

Islamisation is an epistemological framework devised by Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas (1931–2026), where on must know the nature and
purpose of knowledge from an Islamic viewpoint.

Believing in the untruth of oneself would lead to self-abnegation and result to
secondary damages. The index marker of inaccurate portrayal in the psyche of the people are manifested in literary works, prejudice, and stigma in popular culture, and mass media which practise proceeds in the economy sector. Once the Malays truly know themselves through the correct and true understanding of Islam, which is the core of the Malay worldview, only then could a true image of themselves be portrayed.

Malay Colonial Identity of Frank Swettenham – Personalities

This section examines the personalities of the Malays as portrayed by Frank Swettenham in his writings and observations

Frank Swettenham (1850–1946) had written Raja Idris (r. 1887–1916) as the brother of Sultan Abdullah (1842–1922); however, they are cousins. Raja Idris (r. 1887–1916) was a friend to the British, exemplified by the incident when Sultan Abdullah (1842–1922) angered Raja Yusuf (r. 1886–1887) and Raja Idris (r. 1887– 1916) for no longer wanting British assistance while they both liked the British to govern Perak because “the Malays can’t do it (govern Perak). However, due to racial biasness, he was considered inferior to Frank Swettenham; exemplified by the incident where Raja Idris (r. 1887–1916) only told Frank Swettenham of his plans, yet Frank Swettenham replied by giving his consent. Frank Swettenham had also written in the year 1906 Raja Idris (r. 1887–1916) is the most ablest Malay he had known, while, Raja Idris (r. 1887–1916) acknowledges that Frank Swettenham had governed Perak with the consultation of Raja Idris (r. 1887–1916) and that he is incapable to govern and does not want to be troubled by governing Perak while Frank Swettenham is trained for his position and does the job well.

Frank Swettenham had also noted Raja Idris (r. 1887–1916) as the only sincere man out of the five Tunkus — Raja Abdullah (1842–1922), Raja Ismail (r. 1871– 1874), Raja Yusuf (r. 1886 – 1887), Bendahara Othman, and Raja Idris (r. 1887–1916).

Sultan Idris is written as “a highly educated, kindly and polished gentleman, who has travelled Europe and profited by what he has seen.” However, he had the vice of Opium, to which he had quit.

Ngah Ibrahim bin Long Jaafar (1837–1895) is the wealthiest man in Perak
(1871); is a high rank officer who governs the district of Larut, and he is one of the highest six chiefs of Perak. Ngah Ibrahim’s power in Larut conflicts with the power of the British Resident; he is written as the cause for trouble in the Perak succession dispute as he had his own agenda.

The existence of Ngah Ibrahim is asource of trouble; he caused the Larut Wars, the civil war of the Perak succession to the throne; and trouble in British penetration in the Malay State of Perak. The abhorrence of Frank Swettenham (1850–1946) towards Ngah Ibrahim (1837–1895) is immortalised in his The Real Malay.

Ngah Ibrahim declared to have signed the Pangkor Engagement out of fear; and (was coerced to) admit that the Chiefs who attended the Pangkor Arrangement chose Raja Abdullah (1842–1922) as Sultan of Perak, then only did the Governor of the Straits Settlements appoint Raja Abdullah (1842–1922) to the throne of Perak.

However, Frank Swettenham and J.W.W. Birch (d. 1875) gaslighted Ngah Ibrahim that the Governor of the Straits Settlements did not chose Raja Abdullah (1842–1922) as Sultan but he was chosen by the attending Malay Chiefs at the Pangkor Arrangement; and J.W.W. Birch (d. 1875) humiliated Ngah Ibrahim (1837–1895) in public.

Ngah Ibrahim is scapegoated as the hindrance to British penetration in Perak
and the main source of trouble pertaining the Perak succession claims; and is one of the reason that the Government of the Straits Settlements is forced to do careful reconsiderations of the Perak affairs. Ngah Ibrahim had also has violated the Pangkor Agreement by collecting taxes, but upon apprehension, he became an emotional man after doing wrong to the British Government and when being held accountable by being “sulky and would not speak” with the “excuse of not understanding the (Pangkor) Treaty to prevent his levying taxes as formerly.”

Frank Swettenham (1850–1946) had written scathing remarks on Ngah Ibrahim (1837–1995) albeit his dependency on the Malay Chief especially in matters
pertaining his assignments and commissions given to him by higher-ups; especially in providing transportation in the means of elephants; obtaining captured Chinese girls in accordance to the Larut Commission of January 1874; in the Commission to Larut, Frank Swettenham had written Ngah Ibrahim as a man who is inferior and “begged” to please and furnish the request of Frank Swettenham; Frank Swettenham cursed a horrible death to Ngah Ibrahim when he, Ngah Ibrahim, did not supply Frank Swettenham with elephants, and showed that Frank Swettenham had no power over him, so Frank Swettenham had to walk;698 Ngah Ibrahim is rude as he seems to purposely hinder Frank Swettenham from completing his task by not furnishing Frank Swettenham’s (1850–1946) request for elephants; and Frank Swettenham demands Ngah Ibrahim (1837–1895) to fetch the Perak Royal Regalia from Raja Ismail (r. 1871–1874) as it was Ngah Ibrahim who was instrumental in making Raja Ismail Sultan of Perak prior. Frank Swettenham conveys threats to Raja Ismail through Ngah Ibrahim.

Although Ngah Ibrahim was cooperative, Frank Swettenham still wrote
scathing remarks about Ngah Ibrahim. This is exhibited when Ngah Ibrahim sent all the Chinese women bought by Malays up to Permatang i.e. Ujong Timbok, except for the four held by Pandak Corik, although being threatened by Ngah Ibrahim, Pandak Corik did not send them, but they were retrieved by the Commissioners to Larut on 3 February 1874. However, Ngah Ibrahim was accused by a Chinese woman for being a murderer and upon investigation by Frank Swettenham, he was found not a murderer.

Ngah Ibrahim (1837–1895) had more enemies compared to friends. His enmity
with Raja Abdullah (1842–1922) relates to money, deception and coercion, and
extends to fights between Chinese factions in Larut, Perak. Yet he is influential to Raja Ismail (r. 1871–1874) and even was in possession of the Bendahara’s seal and wrote letters using Raja Ismail’s name.”

Larut is the richest province in Perak and Ngah Ibrahim is unfit to govern Larut. Ngah Ibrahim is an ineffective leader as he has many advantages but still failed to administer Larut; the advantages were “superior artillery (4 Krupp guns of considerable calibre), his Indian contingent, and the advantage of an English leader, he had not been able to strike any really effectual blow at his enemies and at this time affairs in Larut were perhaps in a more deplorable state than they had ever been;” he is “utterly unfit to hold his high position as the Mantri” or Minister, enquiry and unsettled debts of Larut is the evidence; as the disturbances in Larut is the fault of Ngah Ibrahim (1837–1895) due to his “infamous system of taxation and the way he gives the mines;” he is not respected by the Chinese and is weak leader for not being able to control the Chinese in Larut, this is exhibited when the Chinese have been found to open mines without permission from Ngah Ibrahim; and the people of Laroot would not fight for Ngah Ibrahim as they state that they will not fight for land
that isn’t theirs. However, Ngah Ibrahim believed in the wisdom of an “old Malay man who knew better than anyone who were the rightful owners of the Mines (in Larut)” to assist Frank Swettenham (1850–1946) in achieving his objective of creating boundaries amongst the Chinese miners in Larut; and “appears to have prevailed on Captain Speedy to join him by liberal forces for his immediate services, both to recruit the Indians, and, when recruited, to lead them against the Si Kuans, and by the promise of very favourable terms in the future (I heard one-fourth of the whole revenues of Larut) should Captain Speedy succeed in permanently driving out the Si Kuans from Larut.”

Ngah Ibrahim (1837–1895) is a person of bad character; he is delusional —
he “appears to contemplate to become Sultan of Perak” though he is not from Perak and of not royal blood; ambitious — the disruption of the Sultanship is due to Ngah Ibrahim who wanted to become the Sultan of Perak by first breaking the line of succession; strategic and calculative — Frank Swettenham (1850–1946) had written that Ngah Ibrahim had the strategy to become Sultan of Perak by electing Raja Ismail (r. 1871–1874) who is old and upon his death, Ngah Ibrahim would be elected to become the successor to the throne of Perak; is not trustworthy; buys women, beats women, forces conversion of religion, and imposes Malay practices upon Chinese women; is a gossip monger; has the “unfortunate failing for doing everything except what is right;” “seems to have been contradicting everything we had said;” is perceived as an inferior as he tries his best to please Frank Swettenham (1850–1946); is boastful is “recalcitrant;” he does double-dealing, lying, cruelty, indecisiveness; has a large following of debt-slaves and seems to compete with other Malay Chiefs in the cruelty towards their debt-slaves; and had deceived the Malays outside Larut and Frank Swettenham undeceived them.

On the brighter side, on 20th April 1874, Frank Swettenham believes Ngah
Ibrahim (1837–1895) has repented his misdeeds and has reformed, hence Frank Swettenham believes that Ngah Ibrahim (will no longer be an obstacle to British penetration in Perak);730 he had shown “wonderful exertion for a Malay,” in committing his task assigned by Frank Swettenham (1850–1946);731 and Frank Swettenham believes that Ngah Ibrahim (1837–1895) who acknowledges the debts he own towards Che Mida signifying that he believes Ngah Ibrahim is an accountable individual.

Malay Colonial Identity of Frank Swettenham -Collectives

This section examines the collective identities, characteristics, and social groups of the Malays as portrayed by Frank Swettenham in his writings and observations.

The political institution of the Malays was the monarchy of the country. They are advised and assisted by their ministers and high officials who are directly and indirectly related to them by either blood or marriage. However, they committed conscious cruelty, and oppression towards their subjects. All of the Malay leaders do not possess leadership skills and are unfit to rule due to their disgraceful and beastly characters except Sultan Idris (r. 1887–1916) and the Sultans of Johor as they are Anglophiles and are in close association with the British. Some of the Sultan are glad with the coming of the British as they may hand over their burden and dislike of ruling to Frank Swettenham who is far capable.

However, there exist a subgroup of Malay princes and kings who are against the advice of the British; they only object because they are men who are of weak and wicked character, who generates revenue through dishonest and disgraceful means.

The economic activities of the Malays are mostly trade where nearly everyone owns land. They labour and sell their fruits of labour for money. All men work regardless of social class yet only the lower born women face the hardships of earning a living. Among the high-skill labour that they do are; service the ruling class; mining; jungle work; fishing;farmers; smiths; weavers; and trade.

On the illicit work, out of desperation they commit; piracy and prostitution. The upper-class have the luxury to obtain revenue from taxation, duties, and fines.

The social structure of the Malays are divided into two main classification; the
Royals and non-Royals. Then there are the ruling class and commonfolk. The Royals are the elites and the apex of the civilization is the Sultan. They generally live a good life indulging in luxuries and have many followers and debt-slaves. Their main source of revenue is taxes, duties, and trade. The non-Royal ruling class which are high officials are rich due to their salary, taxes, duties and trade.

The commonfolk commit trade but also exchange their labour for wages. There are more subgroups of each social class, the gentle born and commonfolk. Further division is upon gender and state of freedom. The Malays only recognize female and male. Therefore, there are the upper-class male, the upper-class female, the lower-class male and the lower-class females, male slaves and female who live in the same society but with different realities.

The culture of the Malays are the attitude of lazy to use their brain and primitive in technology, dislike of toil, indolent, and pleasure-loving. They are a reflection of their environment.

The lower-class Malays are unhygienic; less attracted to money; does not care for time and is untidy; his dignity is to be preserved, any slight to it could turn him into an amuk; clannish; lazy and procrastinates; wears the batik.


However, the Malay culture and customs remain relatively the same for each
subgroup. They enjoy love-making; moderate in practicing religion; The normal puberty age is fifteen as they are angelic before they turn fifteen
and demonic after that; the men are short, thick-set, well-built man, with straight black hair, a dark brown complexion, thick nose and lips, and bright intelligent; the Malay boy is beautiful; and treated with respect; studies the Quran without understanding; the Malay boy then is best avoided due to his wild phase; at twenty-five he choses his life path for betterment or worst. The distinction of the upper-class men is having ambition.

As for the Malay girl, she is less attractive compared to the Malay boy and
enjoys her childhood until she is five years old then joins the labour force, mostly domestic and at times starts earning her living while learning to read and write; at fifteen she becomes shy and womanly; and proud of her beauty. The upper-class women are eloquent in speech and witty; and fond for power, position, and titles

The general character of the Malay is a contradiction, a blend of good and
mostly bad characteristic; his disposition is generally kindly, his manners are polite and easy; masks his suspicion and is reserved; courageous, trustworthy,
extravagant, takes loans and repays debts slowly; eloquent; cares for others and is a gossip; conservative, patriotic, and traditional; kinestatic learner and high skilled; primitive and delusional; not well travelled; prefer to borrow money rather than earning money; do not pay off their debts; is untrustworthy because he is a heathen; opportunist; proud; and hospitable.

The Malay Kings and Sultans envy each other.

Based on the regional commonfolk evaluation, the Malays of Pahang are
warring people, yet seem to be in good circumstances and well-dressed. The
Pahang men who live in Kuala Lumpur are lead by Che Wanda and are dangerous. Down south are the Malays of the Johor Malay State, who are warring with Pahang men but live in peace because the Government of the Straits Settlements prioritizeJohor compared to Pahang.

Selangor was the “war playground for a number of Malay Rajas whose pastime was fighting and intriguing to gain control of rich districts in Selangor.” The Selangor princes are evil and abusive; They complaint aplenty and disliked Syed Zin for being harsh in the justice of administration in Klang. If the absence of Frank Swettenham from Langat waslonger, the Malay Chiefs of Selangor would have had a “free fight.” While in Perak, the Malay Rajas are cruel towards the people and do not realise that they are cruel as they lack empathy; as debt-Slavery is one of the pillars of State in Perak and guarded by the Malay Rajas; they were also too weak to deal with the Chinese who had caused chaos in Larut and there was internal rivalry for the Sultanship; They fabricate lies; delusional; quarrelsome; disrespectful towards the British; and easily irritated.

On the West of the Malay Peninsula is Perak. The name of the Malay State of
Perak before 1276 was Kastan Zorian. Prior to the coming of the British, the Malays of Perak believed in physical exertion to be the winning force,hence amok was common. They were usually armed and provocative.

The people of Perak Besar was isolated from other people. When the British arrived, they brought the hope of happiness to the people of Perak. Therefore, the majority of the Malays of Perak welcomes the presence of the British except a minority who are socially deviants. The Malays of Perak had the same reverence he has towards the British Government as he has towards his father and there was one who is just, as the Malay Rulers do not enforce obedience and punish wrongs.” At the same time, the Perak Chiefs and people can no longer stand Sultan Abdullah and are on the side of the British. While in Kurow, the Malays in Kurow are “conspicuous for their stupidity, and as we could get nothing out of them, except that their headman was one Mat
Ali…”

In Kuala Kangsar, the Malay paradise, the Malays are weak as they are
dependent upon the Temenggung of Johor and are abusive towards the Chinese.

In a different locality, the Malays of Senggang are superstitious. In the district of Larut, the Malays have become confident because they felt safe since the
British came; yet they are cruel towards debt-slaves and J.W.W. Birch.

In the island of Pulau Pangkor, the Malays are fatigue and cut jungles.

In Blanja, no Malay willed to do labour for Frank Swettenham and J.W.W. Birch.

While in Sayong, the whole of Malays think that the British assume the governance of Perak.


While in Kota Lama, they “were very polite.”

In Ipoh, the Malays are mostly wealthy.

Unfortunately, the Malays of Perak killed J. W. W. Birch as “a protest against civilization.” Due to the acceptance of the British in Perak, that once Malay
country has churches and a graveyard for Christian Europeans.

The Perak Malays and Selangor Malays have much difference between them
just as there is difference between the Sultan of Perak and Sultan of Selangor.

In Selangor, debt and killing is common and respect is earned through the numbers of killing. Therefore, there are many debt-slaves in Selangor.

On the other hand, they like Sultan Abdul Samad (r. 1857–1898).

Frank Swettenham believed that it was Langat Malays who attacked the British lighthouse at Cape Rachado on 11 January 1874 They quarrel daily with the Sungai Ujong men; are not used to be spoken severely to; “…appear to me to be by far the most ‘touchy’ people I have ever known;” call the Datuk Bandar “a deceitful lying old villain;” ”they are polite and kind; but are pirates who are too proud work and poor. In contrast to the Ulu Langat Malays who are not confrontational

While the police force from Malacca fear Raja Mahadi and Raja Mahmud who
threatened to amok in their fort and have bad character.

In the Malay State of Pattani, the greatest population are the Malays. Some
of the Pattani Malays had settled in Perak and caused chaos there. For example, a Pattani man and his family was abused by Raja Alang in Gunung Pondok and therefore, after a few days he did the amok at Raja Alang’s house.

The criminal activities done in feuding Rembau and Sungai Ujong towards each other are “cattle-lifting, river piracy and highway robbery” with Linggi River as the main place of fighting. They both would levy taxes on traders and demand exorbitant blackmail to each passerby, if the passerby failed to pay, punishment is by murder or robbery.


In Sungai Ujong, the majority of the Malays are of Sumatran extraction and their customs are unknown and not understood by the other parts of the Peninsula. The Sungai Ujong people “do nothing except smoke opium, gamble and steal.”

Meanwhile, the Labu Malays won’t sell a thing to Frank Swettenham.

The Malays of Kelantan have their own peculiarities, for example, a women moves as freely as the man though they are Mahomedans and are involved in the economic trade, labour force and social life; there is a “large Bazaar (in Kelantan) where the buyers and sellers are principally women, thronged to a degree;” they do agriculture and weave immense numbers of sarongs of silk and cotton; and the special characteristic of the Malays of Kelantan are that they have a variety of entertainment.

Another group of regional commonfolk are the Melayu Dagang or foreign
Malays. Some Malays from Sumatera come to the Malay Peninsula to make money, for example Kooloop Riow, Tunku Sulong; while the Jambi Malays come to trade in Selangor, instead kidnapped a boy and denied their actions, but they surrendered him when Raja Bot offered $100 for the boy, to which they were fined $400 instead and this, they Jambi people took to the Governor of the Straits Settlements.

At the same time, there are piracy in Kedah by Malays and they had attacked British subjects.

Malay Colonial Identity of Frank Swettenham – Themes

This section examines the themes of the Malays as portrayed by Frank Swettenham in his writings and observations.

Most Malays reject opium due to practising Islam, but for those who take are the rich Malays who take opium for hobbies while the poor Malays take marijuana. Opium was a social class symbol.

The political institution of the Malays was the monarchy of the country.
They are advised and assisted by their ministers and high officials who are directly and indirectly related to them by either blood or marriage.

However, they committed conscious cruelty, and oppression towards their subjects. All of the Malay leaders do not possess leadership skills and are unfit to rule due to their disgraceful and beastly characters except Sultan Idris (r. 1887–1916) and the Sultans of Johor as they are Anglophiles and are in close association with the British. Some of the Sultan are glad with the coming of the British as they may hand over their burden and dislike of ruling to Frank Swettenham who is far capable. However, there exist a subgroup of Malay princes and kings who are against the advice of the British; they only object
because they are men who are of weak and wicked character, who generates revenue through dishonest and disgraceful means.

The economic activities of the Malays are mostly trade where nearly everyone
owns land.

They labour and sell their fruits of labour for money. All men work regardless of social class yet only the lower born women face the hardships of earning
a living.

Among the high-skill labour that they do are; service the ruling class; mining; jungle work; fishing;farmers; smiths; weavers; and trade.

On the illicitwork, out of desperation they commit; piracy and prostitution.

The upper-class have the luxury to obtain revenue from taxation, duties, and fines.

The social structure of the Malays are divided into two main classification; the
Royals and non-Royals. Then there are the ruling class and commonfolk. The Royals are the elites and the apex of the civilization is the Sultan. They generally live a good life indulging in luxuries and have many followers and debt-slaves. Their main source of revenue is taxes, duties, and trade.

The non-Royal ruling class which are high officials are rich due to their salary, taxes, duties and trade.

The commonfolk commit trade but also exchange their labour for wages.

There are more subgroups of each social class, the gentle born and commonfolk.

Further division is upon gender and state of freedom.

The Malays only recognize female and male.

Therefore, there are the upper-class male, the upper-class female, the lower-class male and the lower-class females, male slaves and female who live in the same society but with different realities.

The culture of the Malays are the attitude of lazy to use their brain and primitive in technology, dislike of toil, indolent, and pleasure-loving.

They are a reflection of their environment.

The lower-class Malays are unhygienic; less attracted to money; does not care for time and is untidy; his dignity is to be preserved, any slight to it could turn him into an amuk; clannish; lazy and procrastinates; wears the batik.

However, the Malay culture and customs remain relatively the same for each
subgroup. They enjoy love-making; moderate in practicing religion;

The normal puberty age is fifteen as they are angelic before they turn fifteen
and demonic after that;

The men are short, thick-set, well-built man, with straight black hair, a dark brown complexion, thick nose and lips, and bright intelligent;

The Malay boy is beautiful; and treated with respect; studies the Quran without understanding; the Malay boy then is best avoided due to his wild phase; twenty-five he choses his life path for betterment or worst.

The distinction of the upper-class men is having ambition.

As for the Malay girl, she is less attractive compared to the Malay boy and
enjoys her childhood until she is five years old then joins the labour force, mostly domestic and at times starts earning her living while learning to read and write; at fifteen she becomes shy and womanly; and proud of her beauty.

The upper-class women are eloquent in speech and witty; and fond for power, position, and titles.

The general character of the Malay is a contradiction, a blend of good and
mostly bad characteristic; his disposition is generally kindly, his manners are polite and easy; masks his suspicion and is reserved; courageous, trustworthy,
extravagant, takes loans and repays debts slowly; eloquent; cares for others and is a gossip;conservative, patriotic, and traditional; kinestatic learner and high skilled; primitive and delusional; not well travelled; prefer to borrow money rather than earning money; do not pay off their debts; is untrustworthy because he is a heathen; opportunist; proud; and hospitable.

Analysis of the Malay Colonial Identity in the Writings of Frank Swettenham

Below is the analysis for the Malay Colonial Identity written by Frank Swettenham.

The Malays are still stuck in the Middle Ages to which Britain had left behind. Their life is filled with superstition and a regressive religion. The Malays are at unity with their environment which is highly accessible and in abundance of natural resources and this has shaped their attitude of minimal exertion, indolence, laziness, relaxed attitude, and love for sports and nature. They do not care much for the hygiene of their dwelling nor knowledge. Their history and manuscripts are untrustworthy. They are highly in need of progress and better material culture.

The Malays are of various social classes, and customs, to which are unique to their locality. However, they do share similar culture such as reverence towards the reigning Sultan. However, the lives of the Malay boys and men are similar regardless of social class which is in contrast to the Malay women and girls. The gentle born Malay girls and women are treated with dignity and treasured while the lower class is treated as a burden. They are put to domestic work while the boys still play; are married off early so they do not burden the family; and become part of the labour force when they reach their youth. They are fulltime labourers for domestic and income generating purposes, mainly because the men in their life are poor so they are conditioned and trained to contribute their labour and earnings, and they live a wretched existence. They are at the mercy of men and these men of various social class tend to treat lower class and slaves poorly. The Malay women are superficially modest and celibate, however, in accordance to Frank Swettenham (1850–1946), they veil their display of innocence and are actively fulfilling their carnal desires similar to the men.

The ruling class are cruel and oppressive while the subjugated class lives the tragic life. The rich could afford many luxuries to which the poor could not, such as a travel, big number of followers, debt-slaves, multiple wives and children and better clothing and other luxuries.

In the meantime, the rakyats or commonfolk are limited in luxury due to their financial constraints. They mostly work sufficiently for the day and have no ambition in life. Their lives are the product of oppression by the ruling class.

Generally, the Malay are not so comely in physical attraction yet coupled with bad character and compounded with bad hygiene makes them uncivilised. They are only conditionally courteous as they expect courtesy in return. There are two special characteristic of Malay and they are stemmed from one — dignity. All Malay regardless of gender and social hierarchies, they have dignity and uphold it high. They will strike anyone who insults them, therefore, slaves killing masters are not uncommon. This disrespect at dignity results to either shame or amuk. Shame would lead one to depression while amuk leads one to be a homicidal maniac who kills without discrimination. Emotional regulation is hardly heard of, therefore the Malays often result to extreme behaviours. The Malays are lazy as they are dependent upon the Chinese for revenue and material progress yet they are weak as they are unable to control the Chinese. Therefore, the only the British has the capacity to help them and restore themselves as the strength of the British in administration was recognised by Sultan Abdullah (r. 1774) who had begged the British for guidance in administration.

The Malays need a reform in character for progress to which can be afforded by the British, they need assistance in governance to the British could guide, and they need progress to increase revenue to which the British could provide.

The Criteria of Evaluation of Frank Swettenham

Below is the following criteria of evaluation by Frank Swettenham in his writings pertaining the Malays. The evaluation is based upon his professional need of having British penetration in the Malay States in the name of progression and a better quality of life.

The Malays are mostly evaluated on their bad character. The Malays need a reform in character for progress to which can be afforded by the British, they need assistance in governance to the British could guide, and they need progress to increase revenue to which the British could provide.

The Malays are evaluated by political classification and thereby adhere to the traditional Malay monarchy and adat Melayu which are mostly treacherous and cruel towards the subjugated class, it is a customary law that masks oppression, which constitutes the institution of debt-slavery. For the ruling class, their weak leadership and lack of industry and revenue.

The Malays adhere to the traditional Malay monarchy and adat Melayu which are mostly treacherous and cruel towards the subjugated class, it is a customary law that masks oppression, which constitutes the institution of debt-slavery.

The economic activities of the Malays are held by the philosophy of “sufficient for the day” and only the upper—class have ambition. Their laziness and indolence are their comfort zone, as food security is certain in their climate and environment and the tropical weather is constant, therefore, there exist no seasonal cultivation and foraging.

Only the Malays of the upper—class have ambition.

Their social structure is complex, complicated, and in contradiction. The people are limited to luxuries and finer things in life due to their financial capacities.

The male gender lead a similar life but the womenfolk live a stark contrast to the men and even in contradiction in accordance to the their circumstances of birth.

The girl born into privilege is treated like a jewel, and her parents are fond of her, yet, the girl who is born into destitute or lacking in material wealth is expected to contribute to the household since the age of five and into adulthood without an expiration date – they toil in the house, and earn a living through labour and trade.

Their social structure is complex, complicated, and in contradiction. The people are limited to luxuries and finer things in life due to their financial capacities.

The male gender lead a similar life but the womenfolk live a stark contrast to the men and even in contradiction in accordance to the their circumstances of birth.

The girl born into privilege is treated like a jewel, and her parents are fond of her, yet, the girl who is born into destitute or lacking in material wealth is expected to contribute to the household since the age of five and into adulthood without an expiration date – they toil in the house, and earn a living through labour and trade.

The girl born into privilege is treated like a jewel, and her parents are fond of her, yet, the girl who is born into destitute or lacking in material wealth is expected to contribute to the household since the age of five and into adulthood without an expiration date – they toil in the house, and earn a living through labour and trade.

His emphasis in evaluation and the Malays are mostly not given a full evaluation as a people and culture as he evaluates in accordance to their needs, being commerce, effective administration and penetration of Christianity, and adoption of British culture to combat bad character, attain progress and increase revenue.

It has been analysed that Frank Swettenham evaluated the Malays based upon their willingness to accept British intervention in the Malay States on the Malay Peninsula.

He has also projected his own insecurities upon the Malay people, for example, accusing the Malays as viewing him as the red-haired devil when no Malay had uttered or had illustrated such thought.

With regards to slavery, an institution ingrained in the Malay culture since
immemorial; debt-slavery is given emphasis as it is the peculiarity of the Malay people.


However, this is considered an evil are the creditor are commonly exploitive and abusive in all perspectives. Frank Swettenham tried to abolish debt-slavery and replace it with indentured labour, showcasing his reason
and morality for every individual to be free and not treated as property.

Emphasis is given mainly to the negative characters of the Malays; for Frank
Swettenham, the Malays are evil because they are heathens.

This exhibits his inner thoughts that those who are not Christians are evil and only Jesus Christ is the Lord and Saviour to mankind. Yet, his explanations are marred with capitalism tendencies showcased by how they revel in the natural resources found in the Malay peninsula and in the abundance of edible natural resources which is lacking in Britain.

He had exhibited biased views in favour the British agenda and propagation, he had committed the logical fallacy of overgeneralisation and their writings and thoughts are a highly subjective perception to which those Malays, and
their elements of evaluation that aligns with the British are written in a positive light and vice versa.

European Historiography

There are four elements in European Historiography in accordance to Jacques Barzum. They are Monarchy,

In the writings of Frank Swettenham the first element of European historiography is the monarchy,is the unifying factor for the British and Malays. This is exhibited when he writes about the Malay monarchy and also the British monarchy as a unifying factor amongst the people.

The second element of European historiography of partisanship.

Frank Swettenham wrote from a Christian point of view as exhibited by the Biblical references and Biblical characters Frank Swettenham likens himself to. He has also written The Malay to be untrustworthy because he is a heathen; and despite his hospitality, Frank Swettenham ) attributes his “misfortune to travelling with Tuan Shaikh (Mat Ali), whose ‘nasib chelaka’ or ill-luck is proverbial.”

“They told us that there was a swamp across the river where we could get wild geese and all sorts of other birds, but believe not the heathen whether he be Chinaman or Malay.” Frank Swettenham. Journal Entry of 23 April 1874. Frank Swettenham’s Journal, 4 April to 4 May 1874.

The third element of European historiography is homogeneous representation, is exhibited through his Universal History writing and his Graeco-Roman Worldview throughout his corpus.

The fictional characters he made himself similar to are Blue Bird; Robinson Crusoe; and Ulysses. Frank Swettenham. Frank Swettenham’s Journal 4 April to 4 May 1874.

“I (Frank Swettenham) am beginning to have a due appreciation of what must have been R. Crusoe’s feelings when he kept looking out for a ship which would not come, in fact whose bill of lading was not to be signed for years to come. I suppose like him I shall give it up in time.” Frank Swettenham. Journal Entry 8 April 1874. Frank Swettenham’s Journal 4 April to 4 May 1874.

Frank Swettenham (1850-1946) had compared himself to Lazurus of Bethany in the New Testament while he compared the aristocrat Malays who are rich men in the wicked place; he had also hoped to receive divine intervention by God like Jonah, by being swallowed by a whale, as he likened his mission similar to a missionary of Jonah; and he had also compared his hardship to be harder than the Prophet Job. Frank Swettenham. Frank Swettenham’s Journal 4 April to 4 May 1874.

Frank Swettenham wrote his life to be similar as Ulysse, an angry king who was the tragic hero of Homer’s Odyssey, therefore he portrays himself as a tragic hero similar to the tragic heroes of Homer. “…More rain, more idleness, more wretchedness (in Pulau Pangkor). I feel inclined to say with Ulysses ‘Bear up, my soul, a little longer yet’, only unfortunately I cannot go on with him to say ‘a little longer to thy purpose cling’, for I have no purpose, no prospect in view so pleasing as the destruction of the Suitors, tho I think by the way his own conduct before he returned to the bosom of his family hardly justified him in the strong measures he took when he arrived there.” Frank Swettenham. Frank Swettenham’s Journal 4 April to 4 May 1874.

When Frank Swettenham took arms from an evil looking man in Perak, he likened the man to Lord Ullin’s daughter, a character in the poem “Lord Ullin’s Daughter” by Thomas Campbell. “After breakfast we started for Qualla Kangsa. Shortly after we left the house we met a man with such an evil appearance that we were persuaded he be- longed to the robber band of Rajahs Allang and Loh at Gunong Pondok. We removed his arms and left him, like Lord Ullin’s daughter, ‘there lamenting’.” Frank Swettenham. Frank Swettenham’s Journal 4 April to 4 May 1874.

The fourth element of European historiography is racial biasness to which he employed towards the Malays is exhibited throughout his writings; for example “The Malays are a primitive people with few illusions about their own limitations.”

Criterion of Objectivity

This chapter examines the criterion of objectivity in the writings of Francis
Light (1740–1794), Stamford Raffles (1781–1826), and Frank Swettenham (1850–
1946) to assess their credibility and truthfulness. Despite their varying worldviews,
characters, and professional and personal agendas, objectivity remains a central focus.

The standards required to achieve the criterion of objectivity are; (1) accuracy, (2) a commitment to order, (3) logic, (4) honesty, (5) self-awareness, (6)
imagination, (7) unity and completeness, (8) is not bias, (9) does not generalise
from a single instance or commits to Reductive Fallacy, (10) does not apply
misplaced Literalism, (11) employs the precise choice of words that bring clarity in
meaning, (12) avoids poor judgement, (13) does not contain vulgarity, and (14)
does not use the tone of perpetual timidity and indecision.

Objectivity is essential to prevent history from becoming propaganda as facts
are rarely pure and are often shaped by interpretation. Propaganda exploits the
tendency to accept meaning without analysis, therefore, it is incumbent for the
historian to critically assess language to resist manipulation and avoid uncritical
acceptance of written narratives. Knowing their criterion of objectivity is essential
in determining the elements of credibility and truthfulness in their Malay Images
written in their corpus. This is a crucial step to bringing the Malay images to the
direction of truthfulness. The successive steps are Dewesternization and Islamisation.

The first standard of objectivity is accuracy.

This was lacking, exemplified when he had written Raja Idris (r. 1887–1916) as the brother of Sultan Abdullah (1842–1922); however, they are cousins.

Another example is that some sources in composing the Malay images are
not ascertain, for example, Frank Swettenham (1850–1946) heard that Raja Ismail’s wife reported to him the Sultan Abdullah’s men had burnt 7 houses in Kinta and tried to steal the Perak Royal Regalia, but this story in not proven.
The source of information is dubious as exemplified by taking information from Hasan the Malay boy who rode the elephant had informed Frank Swettenham and Captain Speedy Dunlop of the events and history that happened in Galian Baru.

The second standard of objectivity is a commitment to order, to which was
present, he wrote the physical description of the Malays and their natural environment then only their intangible culture.

The third standard of objectivity is logic, to which exist logical fallacies such as the girls and unmarried women are separated from men, yet they delve into promiscuity, there is no logic available as the girls are strictly guarded. Rather it seems to be a projection of himself who was known to be a lover of
women.

The fourth standard of objectivity is honesty, to which is lacking. In his
autobiography, his sister, Charlotte Anne and his first wife was not mentioned neither credited.

There was also an event in the Commission to Larut to which Frank
Swettenham lied to Malays about the Chinese to make the Malay close the stockade, the lie was effective yet dishonest.

The fifth standard of objectivity is self-awareness, to which he exhibited,
he wrote in whining and frustration and was aware of it and he gave the reason that missing social events makes him upset; but mostly lacked this standard exemplified when he projected his difficulty in doing a task to others, but in reality he was not capable. For example, Frank Swettenham had written that Sultan Sir Abu Bakar (1833–1895) is not accustomed to interpreters when in reality, Frank Swettenham was a novice in translation, projecting his own weakness upon others.

He had also shifted responsibilities and blame to Raja Yusuf and Ngah Ibrahim for his own failure to secure the Perak Royal Regalia from Raja Ismail. He had also showcased superiority complex when he cursed a horrible death to Ngah Ibrahim (1837–1895) when he, Ngah Ibrahim, did not supply Frank Swettenham
with elephants, and showed that Frank Swettenham had no power over him, so Frank Swettenham had to walk.

The sixth standard of objectivity is imagination, to which he lacked. He
didn’t understand the Malay manuscripts and the Arab language and diminished them as rubbish.

The seventh standard of objectivity is unity and completeness, to which
was achieved in his images of the Malays, except in the case of the murder of J. W. W. Birch (d. 1875), a complete account is not given, Frank Swettenham wrote that J. W. W. Birch (d. 1875) for solely political reasons, however, upon investigation, it was because he had burnt the house of Raja Ngah and publicly humiliated Ngah Ibrahim.

The eighth standard of objectivity is not bias.

Frank Swettenham is glaring in his racial bias and biasness towards British penetration in the Malay States. Those who so not assist him in British penetration is given scathing remarks; exemplified by the case of Kulo Mahomed who is labelled as foolish and idiotic looking990 for not
furnishing satisfactory answers to the questions posed by Frank Swettenham.

The ninth standard of objectivity is that Frank Swettenham does not
generalise from a single instance or commits to Reductive Fallacy.

The tenth standard of objectivity is that Frank Swettenham (10) does not apply misplaced Literalism.

The eleventh standard of objectivity is that Frank Swettenham employs the precise choice of words that bring clarity in meaning.

The twelfth standard of objectivity is that Frank Swettenham avoids poor judgement; he commits poor judgment by accusing the Malay women and girls to be promiscuous and veils their sexual liberation under the veneer of modesty.

This is poor judgement because the lives of the Malay womenfolk particularly before marriage is made private. Another example is the Malays in Kurow are written as “conspicuous for their stupidity, and aswe could get nothing out of them, except that their headman was one Mat Ali…” due to the reason they did not cooperate with him in gaining information to penetrate the Malay States and change the Sultans.

The thirteenth standard of objectivity is does not contain vulgarity.
Frank Swettenham committed vulgarity in his writings when he addressed the Malay Sultans, Royalties, and Chiefs like commoners, without their
titles and without respect for their position in the Malay society on multiple occasions and in his journals, he did it consistently. For example; “…Abdullah has by his ridiculous conduct carried against himself as Sultan…” another example is when he write another Malay Sultan by name; “Ismail did not attend.”

The fourteenth standard of objectivity is that Frank Swettenham does not use the tone of perpetual timidity and indecision.
He was certain and showed conviction in his writings.

Most of his writings does not meet the standards of objectivity and leans to the direction of propaganda. It can be analysed that he writes the Malays as bad character in need of guidance, weak leadership, and low revenue. All three problems could be remedied with the advice of the British, so the Malays may adopt the way of life of the British for better prosperity, effective leadership, which leads to better revenue of income.

Frank Swettenham did not meet the full standards of objectivity as outlined by Jacques Barzum in his The Modern Researcher.

His writings are the colonial identity given to the Malays, based upon colonial prejudice, and Eurocentric approach. It is not the worldview and temperance of the authors that gives effect to the truthfulness and credibility, rather it is their objectivity, and yet they fail in being objective.

The Malay imageries in his writings is just propaganda to suit his readership and his agenda for British penetration.

Comparative Colonial Identity

Rhoncus aenean vel elit scelerisque. Platea dictumst vestibulum rhoncus est pellentesque elit ullamcorper.

Key Insights (Colonial Malay Identity)

Swettenham’s writings reveal a hierarchy in his portrayal of Malay political figures, in which cooperation with British interests is often associated with favourable characterisation, while resistance, independence, or challenges to British authority invite more negative labels.

  • Malay resistance portrayed negatively: Malays who opposed or resisted British intervention are frequently portrayed unfavourably, with resistance framed through negative characterisations rather than as a legitimate defence of Malay political autonomy.
  • Sultan Idris and diplomatic accommodation: Sultan Idris receives a more favourable portrayal, partly because of his Anglophile outlook and willingness to employ diplomacy. Yet Swettenham also depicts him as quietly protecting Malay interests from behind British authority, revealing a more complex relationship between cooperation and resistance.
  • Ngah Ibrahim as the scapegoat: Ngah Ibrahim is particularly subjected to negative portrayal, especially in relation to his position as a wealthy commoner who did not readily submit to Swettenham’s authority; he is also associated with the infamous characterisation of the Malays as “lazy.”
  • J. W. W. Birch as the necessary sacrifice: Birch’s death is framed as a necessary sacrifice in the wider process of British penetration into the Malay States, positioning his fate within a narrative that ultimately legitimises the expansion of British influence.