About this Page
This page brings together the primary and secondary sources used to examine colonial representations of the Malays and to place those representations within their wider historical and scholarly contexts.
Primary Sources
Original materials produced during the colonial period, including writings, reports, correspondence, publications, travel accounts, administrative records, illustrations, photographs, and other contemporary materials through which colonial officials and observers described and represented the Malays.
Discrepancy
Manuscripts
These are handwritten by Frank Swettenham.
His journal is a handwritten to record the Commission to Larut by Frank Swettenham, W.A. Pickering and Captain S. Dunlop. The Commissioners were sent to Larut to retrieve 28 captured Chinese women and children of the Si Quan to which was more than a success as 45 women and children were rescued. The special characteristics in this report is that Frank Swettenham dated the last page of report in the Hijri calendar, 12 Dzulkaedah 1290.
The Governor of the Straits Settlement tasked Frank Swettenham and J.W.W. Birch to obtain the Perak Royal Regalia which was unsuccessful. The events of this task is recorded in this handwritten journal.
The Governor of the Straits Settlements tasked Frank Swettenham to invite Raja Ismail and Raja Yusuf to meet the Governor of the Straits Settlements in Penang.
There was a war on the Langat River between Frank Swettenham and his supporters versus Raja Mahmud and his supporters. From there, Frank Swettenham was assigned to live in Selangor.
This journal is the daily entries of Frank Swettenham in Selangor. It relates to the revenue of Klang and the disturbances in Sungai Ujong.
This handwritten journal is the daily entries of Frank Swettenham in Klang, Perak. It relates to Tunku Sulong who related that the Malay Chiefs in Perak are in want of another Engagement in Bruas for them to fulfill the Pangkor Engagement and still wanting to collect taxes.
This published journal is regarding the boundaries in Perak and Selangor. Frank Swettenham travelled from Slim to Bernam using the Bernam river which was filled with crocodiles and experienced his first Malay DURBAR in Bernam.
This handwritten journal is the daily entries of Frank Swettenham from Bernam to Langat. Frank Swettenham tells the history of Bernam and the issues of boundaries related to Bernam.
This handwritten journal is of the daily entries of Frank Swettenham in Perak, Selangor, Pahang, Terengganu, Singgora, Kelantan, and Pattani.
This handwritten journal is titled as “Journal Selangor” and records the daily entries of Frank Swettenham in Singapore and Selangor.
This untitled handwritten journal by Frank Swettenham, it records his daily entries when in Perak from the 3rd September to 6 October 1875.
This untitled handwritten journal by Frank Swettenham is dated 23 October to 4 November 1875. This journal is of his daily entries in Perak and the news of the death of J.W.W. Birch.[1] The special characteristic of this journal is that it was bounded by not the chronological order of writing and dates.
[1] This handwritten journal is not titled, dated 23 October to 4 November 1875, resides in the National Archives of Malaysia.
This handwritten journal in pencil is of the daily entries of Frank Swettenham in Perak, specifically giving treatment to the subject matter of the death of J.W.W. Birch.
Newspaper
The Malay Mail. Kuala Lumpur. 26 June 1926. Frank Swettenham was an eyewitness and employed empiricism in methodology of arriving to conclusions.
This newspaper article is lodge in the National Archives of Malaysia
Books
Some Account of the Independent Native States of the Malay Peninsula, Especially of the Circumstances which Led to the More Intimate Relations Recently Adopted towards Some of Them by the British Government. Part 1.
This book discusses the sociopolitical and socioeconomic situations in the Malay States on the Malay Peninsula and discusses the character of the key players that led to the interference of the British Government in the Malay States prior to 1875.
This book comes in two parts and this is the first part. The first part of this book was written in 1875. This book was printed in Singapore in 1880.
Frank Swettenham. On the Native Races of the Straits Settlements and Malay States. London: Harrisons and Sons. 1886. This book discusses briefly on the native races in the Malay Peninsula where Frank Swettenham states that he is not a scientist.
This book was published in London, by Harrisons and Sons, St. Martin’s Lane in 1886. This book was also published in The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, vol. 16 (1887), P. 221–229.
About Perak gives treatment upon the Malay State of Perak. This book was published in Singapore by the Straits Times Press in 1893.
Frank Swettenham. British Malaya: An Account of the Origin and Progress of British Influence in Malaya. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd. Seventh impression 1955. Originally published in 1906.
This book was originally published in 1906. For this research, the seventh impression, 1955, is utilized as it the most updated version of Frank Swettenham’s view on the Malays. Frank Swettenham was against the Malayan Union, as it would cause harm the Malays, a race of people whom had grown to love despite their complex relations. He had also dedicated a chapter on the Malays.
Also and Perhaps is a memorial and the musings of Frank Swettenham of the events he witnessed and some, partaken regarding the Malays on the Malay Peninsula while he was in the Colonial Service of the Straits Settlements. This book is a collection of essays. It was first published in 1912.
Frank Swettenham. An Account of the Origin and Progress of Siamese Influence in the Malay Peninsula 1785 to 1882. London: Colonial Office. 1882.
This book discusses the betrayal of the Siamese people towards the Malays in the pretense of seeking provisions instead attacked the Malays at the harbour of Kedah.
Frank Swettenham. The Real Malay; Short Stories by Sir Frank Swettenham. Kuala Lumpur: Silverfish Books. 2020. Originally Published as The Real Malay: Pen Pictures. London: John Lane the Bodley Head Limited. Third Edition. 1900
This book was first published as The Real Malay: Pen Pictures by John Lane in 1900. It is memorial, sketches and short stories of the experience by Frank Swettenham.
Footprints in Malaya is the only autobiography Frank Swettenham wrote. It was published by Hutchinson and Co. Ltd. London. 1942.
This autobiography has shown Frank Swettenham to be an unreliable author as he deliberately left out the name and the work done by his sister (possibly Charlotte Anne Swettenham) in raising him especially after the death of his mother in Scotland, wrote the wrong number of candidates that he defeated in getting into the Straits Settlement Cadetship and did not acknowledge the marriage and existence of his wife – Constance Sydney Holmes (d. 1947).
The Malay Sketches is a collection of essays pertaining the experience the author had in the Malay States.
There is a translation of Malay Sketches in the Malay language entitled Perihal Orang Melayu by Zubaidah Ibrahim. The original copy was written in the premodern Malay language. It was first published in 1895 by John Lane the Bodley Head Ltd. Frank Swettenham. Malay Sketches. Kuala Lumpur: Silverfish Books. Sdn. Bhd. 2016.
Documents
Frank Swettenham. Minute by the British Resident Perak on the Subject of the Land Code and Appendix Thereto. 13 June 1894.
This document in written as defence against the accusations of Maxwell towards Frank Swettenham in the treatment of the Perak Land Code, and the defence against the assertations of Maxwell that all Malay States are to adopt the Selangor Land Code for effective administration. Maxwell is an advocate for the Malays to employ the Mahomedan Laws as they are Muslims to which Frank Swettenham objects, as the Malays had had their own land laws before the conversion to Islam.
A Proposal for the Better Administration of the Malay States now under British Protection
This proposal gives treatment upon the betterment of governance of the Malay States by creating a federation.
Notes on the History of the Straits Settlements Colony Prior 1896
This is document gives treatment pertaining the history of the Straits Settlements Colony before 1896.
1 “Original Pencilled Memorandum of Proposals for Federation, dated 25 January 1893.”
Memorandum
Memorandum on the Position in Perak Recommending that Sultan Abdullah should Rule the State under the British 1875.
This is a handwritten memorandum by Frank Swettenham writing on the characters of the Malay Rajas.
Memorandum on the Financial Conditions of the Native States of Perak, Selangore, and Sungai Ujong, 8 February 1877.
This memorandum discusses the financial conditions of the Native States of Perak, Selangore, and Sungai Ujong in 1876.
Appendix to Minute of British Resident, Perak, Dated 13th June, 1894, on the Proposed Perak Land Code.
In this minute Frank Swettenham discussed a proposal for the Perak Land Code and answers the question of “To whom does the land belong to?” The land laws are part of adat Melayu. Frank Swettenham penned this document on the 15th July 1894.
The Origin of Federation in the Malay States
This document is defence from Frank Swettenham as the originator of the idea and scheme of the Federation of the Four Federated Malay States to which Sir Cecil Clementi tried to take credit. Old letters and correspondence had become the evidence to show that it was indeed Frank Swettenham as the originator of the idea and scheme of the Federation of the Four Federated Malay States.
Reports
Report of H.B.M.’s Acting Assistant Resident at Selangor. August 1874.
This report is of the subject matter of the Native State of Selangor.
Administrative Reports of the Resident-General to the Residents of the Four Federated Malay States, No. 376. Singapore, 11 July 1903.
This document number 376, dated 11 July 1903, was prepared by Frank Swettenham, the then Resident-General of the Malay States to the Residents of the four Federated Malay States specifically Joseph Chamberlain.
Administration Reports of the Resident-General to the Residents of the Four Federated Malay States for 1902, 11 July 1903.
This report is sent to Joseph Chamberlain.
Correspondences
Enclosure 7 in no. 2, dated 30 June 1875, Correspondence Respecting Slavery in the Protected Malay States, C3285, In Continuation of C. 2410 of July 1879, July 1882.
This is document gives treatment upon the issue of slavery in the Protected Malay States by various colonial officials including Frank Swettenham.
Proceedings
“British Rule in Malaya” was presented at the Special General meeting at the Royal United Service Institution, on 31 March 1896, with Sir Cecil Clementi Smith as the Chairman.
Proceedings of the Royal Colonial Institute, vol. XXVII 1895-96. London: The Institute. 1896.
Journals
Journal for Commission to Laroot, 23 January to 27 February 1874
This handwritten journal is recorded by Frank Swettenham for his Commission to Laroot with Captain S. Dunlop and W. H. Pickering, this Commission is to settle the disputes of the Chinese miners in Laroot, Perak and rescue kidnapped Chinese children and women, who were mostly kidnapped from rival Chinese factions.
Journal Pulau Pangkor to Dindings, 4 April to 4 May 1874.
This handwritten journal is the unsuccessful commission to obtain the Perak Royal Regalia from former Sultan Ismail by Frank Swettenham and J.W.W. Birch.
Journal Senggang, Perak, 10 to 28 June 1874.
This Journal is a record of the attempt of Frank Swettenham to persuade Raja Ismail and Raja Yusof to meet the Governor in Penang upon the instruction of Governor Clarke
Journal Langat River, 13 August to 2 September 1874.
This journal is a record of the battle between Raja Mahdi and Raja Mahmood of Selangor against the English and Tengku Ziauddin (Tunku Kudin) of Klang.
Journal of Daily Entries of Frank Athelstane Swettenham relating the Affairs of Selangor including the Revenue of Klang and the Disturbance at Sungei Ujong, 11 September to 19 December 1874.
This journal is a record of the attempt of Frank Swettenham to settle in Selangor with Sultan Abdul Samad and the fight between the Dato Bandar of Sungai Ujong and Dato Kelana of Sungai Ujong.
Daily Journal Entries by Frank Athelstane Swettenham During His Expedition in to Perak Describing the Disturbed State of Affairs Among the Chiefs after Pangkor Engagement, 15 January to 6 February 1875.
This is the third Selangor journal of Frank Swettenham.
Journal Perak to Slim 7-18 February 1875
This journal is dated 7 to 18 February 1875.
Journal of Daily Entries of Frank Athelstane Swettenham describing his Expedition to Perak, Selangor, Pahang, Terengganu, Kelantan, and Pattani in Thailand, 17 April to 22 July 1875.
This is a handwritten journal.
Journal of Daily Entries of Frank Swettenham in Selangor by Frank Swettenham Regarding the Poor State of Affairs including Debt-Slavery and Disputed Boundaries, 7 August to 3 September 1875.
This is a handwritten journal.
Journal by Frank Swettenham, dated 23 October to 4 November 1875
Description of a Trip from Puchong, 1875
Down the Perak River A True Story
Hassanah’s notes. After reading other journals by Frank Swettenham, this event could be concluded to be have taken place in 1875.
Reports
Report of H.B. M’s Acting Assistant Resident at Salangor.
This is a report by Frank Swettenham pertaining Selangor in 1874.
Memorandum of the Financial Conditions of the Native States of Perak, Selangor and Sg Ujong February 1877.
This memorandum was written by Frank Swettenham as Assistant Colonial Secretary for the Native States.
Administration Reports of the Resident-General and the Resident of the Four Federated Malay States for 1902, dated 11 July 1903.
“Appendix to Minute of British Resident, Perak, dated 13th June, 1894, on the Proposed Perak Land Code.”
memorials
Also and Perhaps. 1912.
This book is a collection of memorial essays, musings, thoughts, and philosophies with selected fictional essays (Kris Incarnadine is a fictional short story) by Frank Swettenham while he was in the Malay Peninsula.
A Nocturne and Other Malayan Stories and Sketches.
This book is a collection of experiences by Frank Swettenham while in the Malay States written in the form of short stories.
Letters
“Enclosure 7 in No. 2. To the Secretary for Native States, Singapore.” Straits Settlements Correspondence Respecting Slavery in the Protected Malay States, in continuation of C. 2410 of July 1879. London, July 1882.
Essays
“Description of a Kelantan Bull Fight”
This is a description of a bull fight in Kelantan for the purpose of Malay amusement and entertainment.
“British Empire in Asia: V. The Malay States and Their Tropic Life.” People of All Nations: Their Life Today and the Story of their Past. Edited by J.A. Hammerton. Vol. II. Pages 785-1568. London: The Fleetway House. 1925.
“Breach of Promise”
This is case brought forward by a young Malay lady to Frank Swettenham who seeks justice and compensation from her former lover who prior gave the strength of his promise to marry her, thus she left her livelihood as a teacher in Johor and went to Pahang with the intention of the promised marriage, instead was rejected.
Speech
“British Rule in Malaya,” Proceedings of the Royal Colonial Institute. Vol XXVII.1895-1896. Pages 271–312. London: The Institute. 1896
Translations
Frank Swettenham had also translated Tangu Et Felime (1780) into English, entitled, Three Gifts, An Arab Love Story. Published by John Lane, The Bodley Head Ltd, London. 1928. A copy resides in the John Bastin Personal Collection of the National Library of Malaysia.
Personalities who had written Secondary Sources
Later scholarly works that interpret, analyse, contextualise, and critique colonial records and representations of the Malays, including books, journal articles, theses, biographies, and other historical and historiographical studies.
J. deVere Allen. “Two Imperialists: A Study of Sir Frank Swettenham and Sir Hugh Clifford.”
J. deVere Allen asserts that Swettenham’s writings are marked by racial bias, highlighting his assertion that “all people know that the Siamese are superior to the Malays by intellect.”
This statement exemplifies Swettenham’s racially charged views, viewing the Malays inferior even when compared to Siamese.
J. deVere Allen critically examines the colonial ideologies of two prominent British administrators in the Malay States: Sir Frank Athelstane Swettenham (1850–1946) and Sir Hugh Clifford (1866–1941). Allen’s analysis of Swettenham, in particular, highlights his paternalistic and imperialist views toward the indigenous Malay population.
Swettenham, as an influential colonial official, notably described the Malays as “unregenerate,” a term that reflects a deeply entrenched belief in the inherent inferiority of the native peoples under British rule. According to Swettenham, it was the responsibility and mission of the white colonial administrator to “regenerate” the Malays by uplifting their social, economic, and moral conditions. Central to his justification for British intervention was the notion that the happiness of the Malay population could be enhanced through the enhancement of revenue and economic productivity in the Malay States, thereby fostering what he perceived as a more prosperous and orderly society. This perspective, typical of the paternalistic colonial mindset, underscored the imperial belief in the civilizing mission of European powers, wherein the political and economic control of native populations was framed as a moral obligation to “improve” their lives. Allen’s work sheds light on how such imperialist ideologies informed the governance strategies of colonial officials like Swettenham and the broader impacts of these policies on the colonized societies.
Ernest Chew, “Sir Frank Swettenham’s Malayan Career up to 1896” (Ph.D. diss., University of Singapore, 1966).
Ernest Chew, in his examination of Swettenham’s career, identifies discrepancies in Swettenham’s self-representation, particularly regarding his entry into the Cadetship of the Straits Settlements. In Footprints in Malaya, Swettenham claims to have faced twenty competitors for the position; however, Ernest Chew reveals that the actual number of competitors was eight. This discrepancy calls into question the accuracy of Swettenham’s account and suggests a tendency toward exaggeration or selective memory in his narrative.
H.S. Barlow’s Swettenham & Swettenham: Historian and Schemer.
H.S. Barlow, in his analysis, contends that Swettenham’s writings should not be accepted at face value, as they often reflect his personal interpretation of events.
Barlow points out inconsistencies between Swettenham’s early and later accounts of the same incidents, suggesting that the colonial official’s narratives were shaped to suit his evolving personal and political needs.
In British Malaya, for instance, Swettenham selectively presents events, offering partial accounts. His involvement in land transactions in Johor, which were potentially questionable, is obscured by his vehement denunciation of the Johor Royal Family. Furthermore, Barlow argues that Swettenham’s diaries were edited to suit his purposes, further complicating any claim to objectivity.
In Footprints in Malaya, Swettenham’s Anglo-centric perspective is evident, as he consistently frames events through the lens of British superiority. This selective interpretation of history, where the narratives of colonized peoples are marginalized or misrepresented, reinforces the colonial ideology that underpinned Swettenham’s approach to governance and historical writing.
Taken together, these critical assessments underscore the inherent biases in Swettenham’s writings, highlighting the ways in which his personal interests, racial prejudices, and political affiliations shaped his portrayal of colonial events and figures.
Key Insight (Sources)
Swettenham left behind a substantial body of writings that provides valuable primary evidence for examining how Malay life was observed, recorded, and represented under British colonial rule.
- A large corpus of writing: Frank Swettenham produced a substantial body of material, including books, journals, reports, essays, and administrative writings. Works which provide an extensive record of his experiences and observations in Malaya.
- The value of his sources: Swettenham’s writings are valuable because he recorded many aspects of Malay life that he encountered directly—customs, social practices, relationships, occupations, material life, language, and everyday interactions. His proximity to Malay society makes these records important primary sources for historical inquiry.
- The source is itself part of the subject: Swettenham’s descriptions tell us not only about the Malays he encountered, but also about the colonial observer who was doing the describing. His writings can therefore be read on two levels: as records of Malay life as he encountered it, and as evidence of how a British colonial official constructed knowledge about the Malays.
- A subject of considerable scholarship: Swettenham has been studied extensively, particularly in relation to British administration, colonial policy, political history, and the economic development of Malaya. This website approaches his writings from a different emphasis: the colonial construction of Malay identity and the ways in which Malays were observed, described, classified, and represented.
- Read the record before the interpretation: Swettenham’s observations should not be treated as neutral descriptions of the Malays. His position as a British colonial official shaped what he noticed, how he recorded it, and the conclusions he drew from it. The value of his writings therefore lies not simply in accepting his interpretations, but in examining what he actually recorded, separating his observations from his judgments, and reading both as evidence of the colonial encounter.